Author(s)

JAAP M. VLEUGEL, FRANS BAL

Abstract

A replacement of cars with conventional internal combustion engines (ICEs) by electric vehicles (EVs) is seen by many as a means to improve local air quality, reduce dependence on fossil fuels and CO₂ emissions. The market for EV is slowly developing with a growing number of (subsidized) manufacturers offering EV models in different market segments to (subsidized) car owners. The number of EVs is still small in most countries, but policymakers and manufacturers see partial or even full replacement of ICEs by EVs as realistic in the coming decade. EV engines are powered by rechargeable lithium-ion batteries. Li-ion is produced from precursors, either liquid (brine metal salt) or solid (hard rocks). Lithium mining is still concentrated in a few countries. Lithium is used for batteries, ceramics, grease and medicine. This reliance comes at a cost, as conventional lithium mining creates several externalities. The following main question will be addressed: How to source a required volume of lithium in a way that reduces the environmental and social-economic impact of mining this resource? To address this question, we will use a combination of relevant literature and a local case study supported by a model-based estimation. The focus is on the Netherlands, an EV user country, but the approach is generic. Technical details (of mining) will be briefly touched upon. An estimated 7,654 million tons of battery-grade lithium is needed for a simulated car fleet of 8 million cars. This would take an estimated 1.67 billion m³ of brine, 42.1 million m³ of fresh water and 57.41 million m³ of desalinated water from mining areas where precipitation is extremely rare. In perspective, around 1.2 billion m³ of water is used by all activities in the Netherlands yearly. The paper discusses several strategies to address the water depletion and its impacts on source areas.

Keywords

electric cars, batteries, lithium sourcing, environmental impact, mitigating policies